(a) A typical CPAP device used in the treatment of sleep apnea is (b) affixed to the head with straps, and a mask that covers the nose and mouth. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. NCEH provides leadership to promote health and quality of life by preventing or controlling those diseases, birth defects, or disabilities resulting from interaction between people and the environment. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Evolutionary psychologyis a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result ofnatural selection. Not able to pass stool or gas. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). The fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fifth Edition(DSM-5) is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders. Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). It may feel like alcohol helps you sleep, but it actually disrupts REM sleep and leads to frequent awakenings. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse consequences. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dreams content (LaBerge, 1990). Indeed, we know sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits (Brown, 2012), leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain attention, make decisions, and recall long-term memories. Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. Other drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine, have also been used to alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal. c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices (Figure 4.21), but their use has grown in popularity among practitioners of alternative medicine. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. The heart rate slows . As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. Complications. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. This is an important factor because we can develop tolerance and experience withdrawal from any number of drugs that we do not abuse. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. . Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. How does hypnosis work? In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. Dreams and their associated meanings vary across different cultures and periods of time. One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake. However, all of their somnambulistic patients who also suffered from sleep-related breathing problems showed a marked decrease in sleepwalking when their breathing problems were effectively treated. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. If you get peritoneal dialysis, peritonitis symptoms also may include: Cloudy dialysis fluid. Add a comment. To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. Signs of inflammation help healthcare providers in making a diagnosis. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. During this time, an individuals heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. Whilecaffeineis generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death (Reissig, Strain, & Griffiths, 2009; Wolt, Ganetsky, & Babu, 2012). Variations and adaptations in cognition and behavior make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing their genes to their offspring. Large-scale public health campaigns by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse have led to recent declines in the opioid crisis. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. That is why individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or work with dangerous machinery. As a result, many scientists have urged the federal government to allow for relaxation of current marijuana laws and classifications in order to facilitate a more widespread study of the drugs effects (Aggarwal et al., 2009; Bostwick, 2012; Kogan & Mechoulam, 2007). Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. Insleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. It is also associated with paralysis of muscle systems in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and respiration possible. To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. Here are some tips to maintain healthy sleep: Aparasomniais one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, & Soddu, 2012). Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. (credit sleeping: modification of work by Ryan Vaarsi). It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90 . We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time) (Roth, 2007). The Safe to Sleep campaign educates the public about how to minimize risk factors associated with SIDS. It may surprise you to know that sleep deprivation is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels of stress hormones, and reduced immune functioning (Banks & Dinges, 2007). Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). Watch this, Sleep, which we all experience, is a quiet and mysterious pause in our daily lives. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. 23. the ability to spend time, good time with them when youre not feeling absolutely exhausted . In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. 0. While there is tremendous variation in any given individuals sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a night) and that this amount declines to just 79 hours by the time we are adults. While "internal state" or impulsivity are terms more generally discussed in psychology or neuroscience, the concept is familiar to anyone. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. MDMA (3.4-methelynedioxy-methamphetamine, commonly known as ecstasy or Molly) is a mild stimulant with perception-altering effects. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environments natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. In the central nervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms. d. respond to illnesses much like the older adults do. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. She indicated that she had fallen asleep at inappropriate or dangerous times, including while eating, while socializing with friends, and while driving her car. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. This theory is supported by Ernest Hilgards research into hypnosis and pain. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and entertainment (Figure 4.20). Methadone clinicshelp people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. Fever. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. Keep your bedroom temperature between 60 and 67 degrees. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. 1. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. Heavy meals may make you sleepy, but they can also lead to frequent awakenings due to gastric distress. The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children (Figure 4.14). It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). This pattern of temperature fluctuation, which repeats every day, is one example of a circadian rhythm. Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). Codeineis an opioid with relatively low potency. How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Popular portrayals of hypnosis have led to some widely-held misconceptions. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. Sleepis a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness. This is of such concern that people who are trying to overcome addiction to these substances should only do so under medical supervision. As already mentioned, the hypothalamus contains the SCNthe biological clock of the bodyin addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus, regulate slow-wave sleep. The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. 1. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders will be described. Two sleeping children are depicted in this 1895 oil painting titled. C) the severity and duration of the problem. Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. Reduced urine. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. As you have learned, drugs can act as agonists or antagonists of a given neurotransmitter system. Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai, Chen, & Hsu, 2013). Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. This section will present information relating to the use of various psychoactive drugs and problems associated with such use. Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. Toleranceis linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). In general, these drugs are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other classes of drugs discussed in this section.